PEST CONTROL: RODENTS

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Search Print this = chapter =20 Cite this = chapter=20

PEST CONTROL: = RODENTS

Mark = E. Tobin = and Michael=20 W. Fall

National Wildlife=20 Research Center, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Colorado, = USA

Keywords:=20 Pest control, Rodents, Plantation crops, Stored products, Forest crops, = Urban=20 Rodent, Reforestation, Hydraulic Structure, Habitat Management, = Rodenticides,=20 Traps, Ultrasonics,

Contents

1.=20 Introduction

2.=20 Characteristics of Rodents

3.=20 Rodent populations

4.=20 Types of Rodent Problems

5.=20 Control Methods

Related=20 Chapters

Bibliography

Summary

Rodents are an=20 important and ubiquitous group of mammals that occur as indigenous or = introduced=20 species throughout the world. The populations of a relatively few = species that=20 live in close association with humans sometimes cause economic damage or = become=20 threats to the health of humans or domestic animals. When rodent control = efforts=20 are contemplated, the type of problem and the objectives of these = efforts should=20 be carefully defined. Successful management of rodent problems depends = upon=20 correct identification of the rodent species involved and on obtaining=20 information on the biology, ecology, and behavior of the species in the=20 ecological setting where the problem occurs. Analyzing the economic = costs of=20 potential damage or assessing the risks of failure or inaction can = assist in the=20 selection of appropriate combinations of control methods to employ. = Progress in=20 rodent control programs should be monitored regularly and success should = be=20 measured against the achievement of appropriate objectives (for example, = prevention of crop damage or prevention of rodent infestations in = warehouses or=20 feed mills), not by counting the numbers of rodents killed or the amount = of=20 poison bait applied. No single method of rodent control will be = predictably=20 effective in all situations; IPM programs that apply several methods = appropriate=20 to the species and the environment where a problem occurs offer the best = prospects for long-term success.

1. Introduction

Rodents are the=20 largest, and one of the most interesting, groups of mammals. They are = important=20 components of virtually all of the earth's terrestrial ecosystems and = are=20 important herbivores that aerate the soil by burrowing activities and = assist=20 plant propagation by consuming and disseminating seeds. They are often = the most=20 important food base for many predatory mammals and birds, acting to = sustain=20 populations of these species. However, rodents also are important = vectors or=20 reservoirs of numerous diseases that infect humans, domestic animals, = and other=20 wildlife species. They are significant economic pests that devastate = crops,=20 gardens, orchards, or landscape plantings, and damage commercial forest=20 plantations or impede reforestation efforts. Rodents burrow through dams = and=20 irrigation structures, gnaw through communications cables and damage=20 electronics, and consume or contaminate stored food and other = commodities.=20 Rodents sometimes prey on the eggs or young of wild birds and compete = with=20 native wildlife species for food or habitat, and thus have become = important=20 concerns in the management and recovery of threatened or endangered = species,=20 particularly in island environments.

Rodent control=20 describes the processes that people use to alleviate rodent damage, to = prevent=20 the spread of rodent-borne diseases, to reduce problem rodent = populations, or to=20 eliminate rodent infestations. Depending on the species of rodents = involved, the=20 kinds of environments where problems occur, the nature of the problem, = and the=20 value of anticipated damage, a variety of methods is available for = controlling=20 damage or reducing rodent populations. Usually, several methods need to = be used=20 systematically to achieve lasting results. The process of selecting, = applying,=20 and evaluating the results of such combinations of control methods in = relation=20 to the ecological and economic aspects of specific damage problems is = called=20 integrated pest management (IPM) or ecologically-based pest = management.

2. Characteristics of=20 Rodents

Because of the=20 diverse characteristics of rodent species for which rodent control may = be a=20 concern, only a very general discussion is possible. The biology, = ecology, and=20 behavior of each species or even of the same species occurring in = different=20 environments must be examined carefully to develop successful rodent = control=20 programs. What might work effectively for rodent control in a grain = warehouse or=20 urban sewer system would have little applicability or would be = impractical in an=20 Asian rice field. However, the kinds of information needed and the = principles=20 used to develop an IPM program are the same.

There = are more=20 than 2000 recognized species of rodents (Wilson and Reeder 1993), many = of which=20 are described and pictured in Nowak (1999). A relative few of these = species,=20 perhaps less than 250 worldwide, interact sufficiently with humans to = cause=20 economic, conservation, or health concerns sufficient to warrant rodent = control=20 efforts. Biologists often rename or combine different groups of rodents = to=20 better reflect relationships as new scientific information becomes = available.=20 Whenever possible, current scientific names for rodents (Wilson and = Reeder 1993)=20 have been used when citing information from older literature.

Many = readers are=20 most familiar with "rats and mice" as the animals commonly associated = with=20 rodent control. The Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus), also known = locally as=20 the brown rat, wharf rat, sewer rat, or barn rat, has a nearly worldwide = distribution and is almost always found living in close association with = humans.=20 The roof rat or black rat (Rattus rattus) and the house mouse = (Mus=20 musculus) are also widely distributed and, together with the Norway = rat, are=20 known as commensal rodents because of their generally close association = with=20 human habitation. Rodents range in size from the South American capybara = (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris), weighing more than 50 kg, to the = harvest=20 mouse (Micromys minutus) of Eurasia, weighing 5 to 7g. Most = rodent=20 species have thick fur, although great variations in pelage occur. The = naked=20 mole rats (Heterocephalus glaber) of Africa have only bare skin, = while=20 porcupine species, such as (Erithizon dorsatum) of North America, = have=20 highly modified coats containing spines or quills that help provide = protection=20 from predators. Hearing, smell, taste and touch are well-developed = senses in=20 rodents, but as with many mammals, particularly the nocturnal species, = their=20 vision is relatively poor and they apparently do not distinguish colors. = Rodents=20 detect sound at frequencies substantially higher than humans; some = species may=20 use ultrasound as a means of communication (Blanchard et al. 1991). Most = rodents=20 have long whiskers or vibrissae around their muzzles that are highly = sensitive=20 and may be used in following runways or burrows. Many rodent species are = excellent climbers, using their long tails for balance. Most rodents = readily=20 swim; some, like beavers (Castor canadensis), nutria = (Myocastor=20 coypus), muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus), and web-footed rats=20 (Holochilus sciureus), have modified appendages such as flattened = tails=20 or webbed feet that facilitate their use of freshwater aquatic = habitats.

Most = species of=20 rodents are born naked and helpless, but mature rapidly. Norway rats = (Rattus=20 norvegicus), for example, have a gestation period of about 3 weeks, = become=20 independent of the mother at about 3 weeks after birth, and can breed = for the=20 first time within another 3 weeks. Rodents are omnivorous, exhibiting = choices=20 and preferences in their diet, but often selecting the most abundant, = palatable=20 foods available. They readily learn to reject or avoid unpalatable foods = or=20 those containing toxins, which presents a problem for the development of = bait=20 materials for effective delivery of rodenticides. The front teeth, or = incisors,=20 of rodents grow continuously and are also worn continuously by gnawing = on=20 objects or food. Because of the large space or diastema behind their = incisors,=20 rodents can use these front teeth to investigate or nibble unfamiliar = materials=20 without actually taking them inside their mouths.

3. Rodent = Populations

Because of the=20 high reproductive capacity of rodents, their populations can grow = rapidly to=20 utilize available habitat and food. In stable environments rodents = self-regulate=20 their populations. When a population reaches the carrying capacity of an = environment, reproduction declines and excess animals die (usually from = disease,=20 parasites, or predation) or emigrate to new areas. Yet rodents survive = very=20 adverse conditions=E2=80=94even nuclear explosions!=E2=80=94by living in = underground burrows=20 (Jackson 1969) and rebuilding their populations when conditions again = become=20 favorable. Habitat disruption or climatic changes that lead to increases = in food=20 and harborage sometimes give rise to population outbreaks or irruptions = of some=20 rodent species, resulting in extremely high populations that can inflict = severe=20 damage on crops (Fiedler and Fall 1994). Libay and Fall (1976) observed=20 densities of 1 adult rat per square meter (10 000 rats per = hectare!) in a=20 breeding population of Rattus tanezumi in a large marsh area in = the=20 Philippines adjacent to a ricefield basin.

Rattus=20 argentiventer in Southeast Asia, the multimammate rats (Mastomys=20 natalensis) in Africa, Mus musculus in Australia and Hawaii, = the=20 jirds, Meriones hurrianae and Meriones shawi, in South = Asia and=20 North Africa, the Microtines (voles and lemmings) in Eurasia and North = America,=20 and cotton rats (Sigmodon hispidus) in southern USA and Central = America=20 all undergo periodic population irruptions. Scientists are continuing to = study=20 ways to predict such rodent outbreaks and prevent their occurrence (or = at least=20 reduce the associated damage). Surveillance of rodent populations, = particularly=20 in agricultural areas where outbreak species occur, is often an = important=20 component of rodent control.

Rodent population=20 irruptions may result in damage that is highly visible and often = spectacular,=20 devastating crop fields over wide areas. However, chronic damage and the = risks=20 of rodent-borne disease are often a greater concern from the viewpoints = of=20 economics and public health and can occur when rodent populations are = relatively=20 low=E2=80=94or in cases of diseases carried by rodent feces or urine, = when rodents are=20 absent. There are few places in the world where rodents are not closely=20 associated with human enterprise. The potential for chronic losses of = crops,=20 losses and contamination of stored products, and transmission of = rodent-borne=20 diseases requires careful monitoring to determine if rodent control = programs are=20 needed or appropriate.

4. Types of Rodent=20 Problems

The = diversity of=20 problems caused by rodents throughout the world is so great that only a = few=20 examples of some general categories of problems can be discussed. We = provide a=20 list of additional readings at the end of this chapter for readers who = wish to=20 obtain more information about rodent pest species and the different = types of=20 problems they cause in different areas of the world.

4.1. = Grain=20 Crops

Rat = damage to=20 ripening rice crops in Asia, Africa, and Latin America can be an = extremely=20 serious agricultural problem, although economic losses are often = difficult to=20 estimate because of complex patterns of growth and recovery of plants = related to=20 the developmental stage when damage occurs (Fall 1977, Fall 1980, Buckle = 1994).=20 Rats can completely consume fields of growing rice and sometimes prevent = planting where crops could otherwise be grown (Wood 1994). Wheat, = sorghum, maize=20 and other grain crops are also damaged extensively by various rodent = species in=20 different parts of the world, and patterns of damage vary considerably = depending=20 on the behavior of the species involved. For example, Bandicota=20 bengalensis in southern Asia cuts mature wheat and rice in large = patches and=20 establishes extensive underground food caches (Poche et al. 1982); = Rattus=20 tanezumi and Rattus argentiventer in the Philippines and = other areas=20 of Southeast Asia feed upon all stages of growing rice (Fall, 1977), = while=20 Sigmodon hispidus in Central America avoids wet areas in rice = fields and=20 causes damage after water is removed to dry the crop before = harvest.

4.2.=20 Sugarcane

Rodents cause=20 extensive damage to ripening sugarcane wherever it is grown, from Asia = to=20 Africa, Latin America, the Pacific region, and Australia (Fiedler et al. = 1987,=20 Fall 1980, Tobin=20 et al. 1990). Rats gnaw on the internodes of growing stalks, thereby = killing=20 stalks, diminishing yields, or allowing infection by bacteria or fungus, = which=20 reduces cane quality and sugar yield. Losses are difficult to quantify = but can=20 be substantial (Redhead 1980, Hampson 1984, Haque et al. 1985, Rampaud = 1993,=20 Engeman et al. 1998b). The major depredating species vary from area to = area and=20 include: Rattus rattus, Rattus norvegicus, and Rattus exulans=20 in Hawaii; Holochilus scuireus, Sigmodon hispidus, = Oryzomys=20 palustris, Mus musculus, and Rattus rattus in North and South = America; Rattus tanezumi in Southeast Asia; Millardia = meltada,=20 Bandicota bengalensis, and Bandicota indica on the Indian=20 subcontinent; Rattus losea and Bandicota bengalensis in = China;=20 Mus caroli and Apodemus agrarius in Taiwan; Rattus sordidus and = Melomys=20 burtoni in Australia; and Rattus rattus, Arvicanthis niloticus,=20 and Thryonomys swinderianus in Africa (Taylor 1984, Fiedler = 1988,=20 Prakash and Mathur 1988, Wood 1994).

4.3. = Orchard and=20 Plantation Crops

Voles = (Microtus sp.) cause extensive damage in fruit orchards in USA = and Europe=20 (Tobin and=20 Richmond 1993, Guedon and Combes 1990). Populations of these rodents = typically=20 irrupt periodically and, when preferred vegetation is scarce, = particularly in=20 winter, gnaw the roots and trunks of trees for the underlying phloem and = cambium=20 tissue. The resulting damage interferes with transport of nutrients = between the=20 roots and aerial portions of the tree and increases the chance of = infection by=20 root pathogens. The resulting damage kills trees, reduces fruit = production, and=20 increases the time for new plantings to come into production. Coconuts = are grown=20 commercially in many tropical areas and are subject to damage by several = rodent=20 species, particularly Rattus rattus and Rattus tanezumi. = These=20 rodents climb palms of all ages, primarily to feed on developing nuts, = which=20 then fall prematurely to the ground (Fiedler et al. 1982, Wood 1994). = The=20 proportion of nuts that drop prematurely due to rat damage can be quite = high.=20 Impacts on yield may not be proportional to the number of developing = coconuts=20 that fall to the ground (Williams 1974, Reidinger and Libay 1981, = Fiedler et al.=20 1982 ). Trees in some areas may compensate for early damage by = increasing the=20 size and weight of remaining nuts; in situations where rats feed on = coconut=20 flowers or damage very small nuts, yield losses may be underestimated by = counts=20 of fallen, maturing nuts.

Macadamia=20 orchards in Hawaii and Australia sustain extensive damage from Rattus = rattus (White et al. 1997, Tobin 1992). These arboreal = rats gnaw=20 through the hard shell to eat the developing kernel inside. Damaged nuts = fall=20 prematurely. Five to ten percent of developing nuts are damaged by rats = in some=20 Hawaiian orchards. However, the economic impact of this damage is not = clear (Tobin = et al. 1993),=20 because some trees apparently partially compensate for this damage by = producing=20 additional nuts (Tobin et al. 1 997a).

Rodents in=20 Africa, Asia, South America, and the West Indies open ripening pods of = cacao and=20 either take whole beans or feed only on the mucilage which surrounds the = beans,=20 depending on the species of rodent (Wood 1994). Damaged pods are lost = due either=20 directly to rodent damage or indirectly to ensuing fungus infection. = Damage=20 often is greatest where cacao is grown in mixed culture with other crops = such as=20 coconut (Williams 1973, as cited in Wood 1994). Depredating species = include=20 Rattus tiomanicus, Rattus tanezumi, and Callosciurus notatus = in Asia,=20 and Hylomyscus stella, Praomys tullbergi, Stochomys = longicaudatus,=20 Dephomys defua, and Praomys morio in West Africa (Wood = 1994).

Commercial oil=20 palm plantations in Malaysia and Africa sustain damage from rodents that = feed in=20 the crowns of trees on the oil-bearing tissue of developing fruitlets. = Wood=20 (1994) reported that populations of Rattus tiomanicus reached = between 200=20 and 600 rats per hectare in Malaysian orchards where no rodent control = was=20 practiced, with estimated losses averaging about 5% of the yield. = Rattus=20 argentiventer and Rattus tanezumi sometimes also become pests = in=20 Malaysian orchards (Wood 1994). In Africa, the major rodent species = causing=20 damage to oil palms include: Dasymys incomtus, Lophuromys = sikapusi,=20 Tatera valida, Oenomys hypoxanthus, Praomys morio, Mus minutoides, = Lemniscomys=20 striatus, and Uranomys ruddi (Wood 1994). Up to 80% losses = have been=20 reported in Nigeria in one year (Wood 1994).

4.4. = Stored=20 Products

Rodent=20 consumption of stored food and grain and damage to storage structures = and=20 containers, and indirect losses caused by spillage, spoilage, or = contamination=20 that results in condemnation or rejection of shipments are important = economic=20 and public health problems worldwide (Jackson 1977, Brooks and LaVoie = 1990,=20 Conover et al. 1995). The great diversity of rodent species, storage = structures,=20 and environmental conditions and the difficulty in estimating = incremental or=20 indirect losses help mask the economic impact of the problem. Since most = rodent=20 species involved in stored product damage are nocturnal, heavy = infestations may=20 persist unnoticed without careful inspection of stores or premises = (Jackson=20 1990). In many situations, careful grain handling procedures, indoor and = outdoor=20 sanitation, immediate disposal of spillage and garbage, frequent = inspection for=20 rodent signs, and maintenance control programs are important ways to = prevent the=20 development of more serious and difficult problems.

4.5. = Forest Crops=20 and Reforestation

Foraging by=20 rodents can be a major impediment to reforestation efforts around the = world.=20 Direct predation on seeds by deer mice (Peromyscus sp.) and house = mice=20 (Mus musculus) in USA (Nolte and Barnett 2000) can preclude or = reduce the=20 success of direct seeding efforts. Clipping and girdling of the roots = and stems=20 of young seedlings by a wide variety of rodents is a major source of = tree=20 mortality. Pest species include: squirrels (Sciurus sp. and=20 Tamasciurus sp.) strip bark from trees in Europe and North America = (Gill=20 1992); voles (Microtus sp., Clethrionomys sp.) in the = United=20 States, Europe, and Asia (Myllymaki 1977, Pigott 1985, Maguire 1989); = deer mice=20 (Peromyscus sp.) in the United States (Maguire 1989); porcupines=20 (Hystrix indica) in Asia (Khan et al. 2000) and (Erethizon=20 dorsatum) USA (Wagner and Nolte 2000); pocket gophers (Thomomys = sp.)=20 in USA (Crouch 1986, Engeman et al. 1998a); and mountain beavers = (Aplodontia=20 rufa) in the Pacific Northwest (Wagner and Nolte 2000). In western = USA=20 pocket gophers (Thomomys sp.) damage or destroy hundreds of = thousands of=20 acres of forestland each year, severing stems and girdling roots and = stems of=20 more conifers than all other wild mammals (Crouch, 1986). Even when = rodent=20 control programs are in place, pocket gophers may quickly re-invade = cleared=20 areas and re-occupy vacant burrow systems (Engeman and Campbell 1999). = Beavers=20 (Castor canadensis) in North America, particularly in = southeastern USA,=20 also cause considerable damage to trees and forests as well as to = landscape=20 plantings, both directly by their feeding and dam-building activities, = and=20 indirectly by flooding caused by blocking streams and drainage = structures with=20 dams (Conover et al. 1995). Nolte and Otto (1996) have compiled analysis = of tree=20 damage by rodents and other wildlife species that provides current = sources of=20 management materials as well as a guide to identification of = damage.

4.6. = Hydraulic=20 Structures

Although little=20 has been published, a number of burrowing rodent species cause damage, = water=20 loss, and the attendant risks of flooding, by excavating earthen dams,=20 irrigation canals, or flood control structures. Notable species involved = are=20 beavers (Castor canadensis), muskrats (Ondatra = zibethicus),=20 gophers (Geomyidae), and ground squirrels (Spermophilus sp.) in = North=20 America; Bandicota bengalensis in southern Asia; and nutria = (Myocastor=20 coypus) in North and South America. A variety of other burrowing = species=20 cause problems on a localized basis. Determining the cause of breaks in=20 hydraulic structures is often difficult because animal activity is = impossible to=20 assess if the evidence has washed away. Failure to control rodent = infestations,=20 however, is potentially threatening to human life and may result in = legal=20 actions and repairs ranging to millions of dollars (Hegdal and Harbour=20 1991).

High = beaver=20 (Castor canadensis) populations in many areas are now a cause of=20 considerable concern for both forest managers and for those responsible = for=20 flood prevention and control. These large rodents move to flowing water = and cut=20 surrounding trees by gnawing around the circumference of their bases. = Trees are=20 used for dam building, lodge construction, and food. Beavers also = excavate dens=20 in the banks of reservoirs, streams, or canals, resulting in water loss = and even=20 structural failure. Beaver dams that block culverts, ditches, streams, = or=20 spillways can result in extensive flooding and damage to bridges, roads, = and=20 other structures, as well as flooding and death of trees in commercial=20 plantations or reforestation and riparian areas (Hegdal and Harbour = 1991,=20 Conover et al. 1995, Fall and Jackson 1998).

4.7. = Urban Rodent=20 Problems

In = most of the=20 world's cities and towns, one or more of the cosmopolitan commensal = rodents=20 (Rattus rattus, Rattus norvegicus, or Mus musculus) live = with=20 people in homes, business establishments, markets, yards, and sewers. A = variety=20 of other species occur in parts of their ranges as commensal rodents in = urban=20 areas, notably, Rattus exulans and Rattus tanezumi in = Southeast=20 Asia, Bandicota bengalensis in southern Asia, and Mastomys=20 natalensis in parts of Africa (Lund 1994). In close association with = people=20 in dense settlements, rodents cause a variety of problems, including = loss and=20 contamination of foodstuffs, destruction of property, rat bites, gnawed=20 electrical wiring resulting in fires, and transmission of diseases, = notably=20 salmonellosis, but a variety of others in various parts of the world. =

Because of their=20 relative prominence, rodent infestations in urban areas generally = attract=20 political attention and become the frequent subject of periodic, = large-scale=20 control efforts. Davis (1972) contended, based on his research in = Baltimore in=20 the late 1940s (Davis 1953), that enough was known about rodent = population=20 principles to control urban rodent infestations and other rodent = problems. His=20 research demonstrated that outdoor rodent populations in cities could be = managed=20 by removal of the food and habitat on which Norway rat (Rattus=20 norvegicus) populations depended. Fifty years later, Fall and = Jackson (1998)=20 saw the failure of this approach related to the difficulty in = maintaining the=20 diligence of urban residents and the inconsistent support of the public = and=20 private sectors. Colvin and Jackson (1999) maintain urban rodent control = must=20 focus on strategic, comprehensive approaches that incorporate multiple = tactics=20 and partnerships among government agencies, community groups, and pest = control=20 companies. Clearly, large-scale rodent control efforts in urban areas, = if=20 properly planned and managed using IPM approaches, can be quite = effective=20 (Colvin et al. 1990).

4.8. = Damage to=20 Cables, Wires, and Electronics

Various species=20 of rodents gnaw on above- and under-ground communications and power = cables,=20 resulting in service interruptions, fires, and other safety concerns = (Shumake et=20 al. 1999, 2000; Cogelia et al. 1976). Seismic cables laid on the ground = surface=20 for geologic mapping are often damaged by rodents and other wildlife = species.=20 About 18% of telephone and 26% of electric manholes inspected in = downtown Boston=20 had evidence of rat (Rattus norvegicus) activity (Colvin et al. 1998). = Ramey and=20 McCann (1997) reviewed research conducted in USA since the 1940s to = develop=20 cables resistant to damage by rodents, mostly pocket gophers = (Thomomys sp.=20 and Geomys sp.). Much of this research evaluated either the=20 susceptibility of various types of cable to gnawing (McCann 1995, = Shumake et al.=20 1999) or the effectiveness of repellents for deterring gnawing (Shumake = et al.=20 1999, 2000). Rodents living in attics, walls, and basements commonly = gnaw=20 electrical wiring, sometimes causing fires (Jackson 1990). Mice, in = particular,=20 may readily gain access to sensitive electronic equipment, damaging = wiring and=20 circuit boards.

4.9. = Rodents and=20 Disease

The = list of=20 diseases of humans and domestic animals for which rodents serve as = vectors or=20 reservoirs is long=E2=80=94and growing. Each decade sees new diseases = described and new=20 epidemiologic associations made to particular rodent species. The = commensal=20 rodents, particularly Rattus rattus and Rattus norvegicus, = because=20 of their close association with man, are particularly important. Zinsser = (1935)=20 provided an interesting account of the historical importance of = louse-borne=20 typhus in decimating human populations and influencing the outcomes of = human=20 conflicts over several centuries. Gregg (1985) similarly recounts the = historyand=20 rodent-flea-human associations of plague pandemics, including the Black = Death of=20 14^th century Europe. Plague continues to be a disease of = local=20 concern in several parts of the world. Leptospirosis, another = rodent-borne=20 disease of worldwide importance to humans and domestic animals, has been = recently reviewed by Faine (1994). Gratz (1988, 1994) provides = comprehensive=20 reviews of diseases and rodent species associations for which rodent = control=20 programs may be indicated as management measures. Detailed summaries of=20 communicable diseases for which rodents are implicated as vectors or = reservoirs,=20 including symptoms, courses of treatment, and means of prevention are = available=20 in Chin (2000). Rodent control efforts that minimize close human and = domestic=20 animal exposure to rodent infestations, combined with surveillance and=20 monitoring in local problem areas can help prevent rodent-borne disease=20 outbreaks from becoming more widespread.

4.10. = Conservation of Rare Species

Rats = have had a=20 devastating impact on many native ecosystems, particularly remote = islands where=20 the flora and fauna has evolved in isolation from predatory pressures = (Atkinson=20 1989). Polynesian rats (Rattus exulans) spread with early = Polynesian=20 immigrants across the Pacific basin, and roof rats (Rattus = rattus) and=20 Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) later accompanied western = explorers=20 throughout the world (Atkinson 1985). All three species prey on = ground-nesting=20 sea birds on remote oceanic islands (Austin 1948, Kepler 1967, Coulter = et al.=20 1985, Bertram 1995). Roof rats, the only one of the three species that = regularly=20 climbs trees, prey on the eggs and young of many species of forest birds = (Atkinson 1977, Dunlevy et al. 2000). Rats have negative impacts on rare = invertebrate fauna (Hadfield et al. 1993) and on native vegetation = (Allen et al.=20 1994, Witmer et al. 1998) on many islands, and may help spread seeds of = invasive=20 plant species (Dunlevy et al. 2000).

5. Control Methods

Many = different=20 methods for controlling rodents or rodent damage have been passed down = through=20 folklore or have been tested and proven effective in particular = situations.=20 Others are promoted or marketed as ultimate solutions to a gullible = public, but=20 are impractical or ineffective. Some materials or methods once widely = used are=20 no longer available, having been recognized as unsafe or fallen victim = to=20 increasingly stringent environmental regulations or changing cultural = mores.=20 Development of new rodent control methods continues to be an exciting = subject=20 for researchers. Fall (1990) summarized, in tabular form, the great = variety of=20 methods and techniques suggested, used, or tested for various rodent = problems.=20 Space allows us to discuss only a few of the diverse approaches to = rodent=20 control; however the references and additional reading provided will = give an=20 interested reader details on particular approaches.

5.1. = Integrated=20 Pest Management

The = diversity of=20 rodent pests and types of pest problems worldwide requires a variety of=20 approaches for resolving site- and situation-specific problems. = Controlling rat=20 damage in Asian rice fields requires a different approach from that = required for=20 controlling the spread of diseases transmitted by rats in urban = environments;=20 controlling rodent damage to forest plantings in North America presents = a=20 decidedly different situation from controlling depredations of rodents = in=20 African wheat fields. Smith and Calvert (1978) defined IPM as broad,=20 ecologically based control systems that use and manipulate multiple = tactics in=20 an effective and coordinated way. Smith's personal, concise definition, = "=E2=80=A6an=20 ecological approach to pest control," conceptualizes the actions = required to=20 manage the multiplicity of plant and animal pests, including rodents, = that lower=20 the efficiency of humankind's production systems or reduce the quality = of life=20 for people worldwide. In its broadest sense, integrated rodent pest = management=20 (IPM) is the utilization of a variety of control methods, appropriate to = specific damage situations, emphasizing the use of environmental = controls on=20 population growth, and continuously evaluated in relation to achieving = levels of=20 damage that can be tolerated economically and socially, to resolve = specific=20 problems (Marsh 1981, Fall and Jackson 1998, Singleton et al. 1999). = Decision=20 support systems are available for a few rodent control problems (others = are=20 under development) that can help a user to process ecological = information,=20 evaluate the variety of options and techniques appropriate to the = problem, and=20 better predict when control actions need to be taken (Engeman and Witmer = 2000).

5.2. = Habitat=20 Management

All = animals=20 require food, water, and cover to survive and reproduce. Where these = resources=20 are abundant, rodents thrive; where they are in short supply, animals = either=20 emigrate or die. Whenever possible, control programs should focus on = altering=20 the habitat and reducing its potential for attracting and supporting = pest=20 species. Otherwise, the effectiveness of rodent control measures will be = of=20 short duration and must be frequently repeated (Davis 1972, Engeman and = Campbell=20 1999).

Rat = (Rattus=20 sordidus and Melomys burtoni) damage to sugarcane is a major = problem=20 in Australia. Traditional control measures that rely on widespread = aerial=20 application of toxic baits have resulted in highly variable success. The = most=20 effective control consists of herbicide treatments or early harvest and=20 "trash-blanketing" to reduce in-crop weeds that attract rodents, = combined with=20 timely application of rodenticides (Hampson 1984, Whisson 1996).

In = temperate=20 areas, where voles (Microtus sp.) damage apple trees, = particularly during=20 winter, rodenticide baiting programs frequently have failed to prevent = damage.=20 Many commercial apple growers in USA maintain a vegetation-free zone = under the=20 orchard canopy to discourage voles from living near the bases of trees, = where=20 they cause the greatest damage. Many also mow orchard ground cover = frequently=20 during the growing season to discourage voles from residing in the = orchard and=20 to reduce vegetative competition with trees for water and nutrients (Tobin = and Richmond=20 1993).

Wide-scale=20 alteration of the habitat often is not feasible in tropical countries = where=20 critical resources are ubiquitous and available year-round. Open = construction of=20 housing and storage structures makes it possible for rodents to readily = move=20 from fields to buildings. The resources needed to apply herbicides or = other=20 means of reducing rodent habitat are often out of reach of people in = rural areas=20 or in dense human settlements lacking basic services and sanitation. The = ecological consequences of major habitat alterations to reduce rodent=20 infestations might be far-reaching, impacting desirable wildlife and the = lives=20 of human inhabitants in unacceptable measure.

In = situations=20 involving commensal rodents, every effort should be made to reduce food = and=20 cover that attract rats (Howard and Marsh 1981). This includes heavy = pruning of=20 ivy, palm trees, berry thickets, or any densely growing plants adjacent = to=20 structures, as well as maintaining sanitary conditions in homes, = businesses,=20 streets, and vacant areas. Garbage cans and industrial trash containers = should=20 have tight-fitting covers, and trash should be collected frequently. A = general=20 removal of all rubbish and trash helps reduce food and harborage for = rats. The=20 most effective means of limiting rodent damage in buildings and = structures is to=20 prevent their initial entry (Baker et al. 1994). Rats can crawl through = or under=20 any opening higher or wider 1.3 cm, and mice can gain entry through any = opening=20 larger than 0.6 cm. Both rats and mice can run along or climb electrical = wires,=20 pipes, fences, poles, ropes, cables, vines, shrubs, and trees, as well = as climb=20 almost any rough vertical surface such as wood, brick, concrete, = weathered sheet=20 metal, and many plastic products. Rats and mice can crawl horizontally = along or=20 through pipes, augers, conveyors, conduit, and underground utility and=20 communications lines, as well as gnaw through a wide variety of = materials,=20 including lead and aluminum sheeting, window screens, wood, rubber, = vinyl,=20 fiberglass, plastic, and low-quality concrete block. Buildings should be = inspected carefully to detect any potential entry points. Cracks and = openings in=20 foundations should be sealed, and all openings where water pipes, = electric=20 wires, telephone wires, sewer pipes, drain spouts, and vents enter a = building=20 should be tightly sealed to prevent rodent access. Doors, windows, and = screens=20 should be tight-fitting.

5.3.=20 Traps

An = amazing=20 variety of traps, commercially available or constructed in homes or = villages,=20 are used in efforts to control rodents; the centuries-long search for "a = better=20 mousetrap" has not ended (Bateman 1971, 1979). Trapping is widely used = by=20 specialists for surveillance and monitoring of rodent infestations and = is,=20 perhaps, the most selective technique to remove individual rodents from = problem=20 situations. Although trapping is very labor intensive and requires skill = to be=20 used effectively, its relatively low cost compared to other approaches = often=20 makes it a primary method of choice for rodent control. Trapping is also = utilized where non-target animals are an important concern or where use = of=20 toxicants or other more effective methods are prohibited. Regulated = commercial=20 harvest of some species of rodents for their furs has been a successful = method=20 used by wildlife managers for holding rodent populations in check so = that they=20 do not reach levels that inflict serious economic damage. In recent = years, use=20 of certain types of traps and trap-setting methods has been restricted = in=20 various countries, largely through the efforts of animal rights = organizations=20 that have viewed trapping animals as inhumane (Fall and Jackson 1998). = This has=20 particularly affected the management of larger rodents such as beaver = (Castor=20 canadensis), muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), and nutria or = coypu=20 (Myocastor coypus), and in some areas control of smaller rodents = such as=20 gophers (Geomyidae). Procedures for trapping different species vary = widely and=20 considerable behavioral information on the species of concern in a = particular=20 habitat is often required. Assessment of the selectivity of particular = traps is=20 useful, since capture of other animals reduces trap efficiency and may = affect=20 populations Jackson (1990) outlines procedures for capturing rats and = mice with=20 snaptraps or "breakback" traps, cage traps, and glue boards. Trap = densities must=20 be adjusted to pest population levels and the home range size of the = species=20 involved; and traps must be placed where animals are active, such as = along walls=20 or under the shelter of grain pallets. Traps may be baited to attract = animals to=20 the triggering mechanisms or may be set to capture animals in the course = of=20 their normal movements by carefully choosing the set locations. Trapping = generally is not practical for managing large infestations or removing = entire=20 populations over extensive areas. However, traps can be used effectively = in=20 limited areas or where substantial resources are available and more = efficient=20 techniques cannot be used or developed. Gosling and Baker (1989), for = example,=20 describe successful, sustained efforts over many years by British = government=20 biologists using leghold and cage traps to eradicate populations of = muskrats and=20 nutria.

5.4.=20 Rodenticides

Toxicants=20 frequently are the most practical and cost-effective tools for reducing=20 troublesome rodent populations over large areas. Rodenticides require = minimal=20 manpower to apply and, when properly formulated and applied, have the = potential=20 to provide quick results with minimal impact on the environment and = non-target=20 animals. The effectiveness of rodenticide treatments varies considerably = among=20 toxicants, bait formulations, methods used, and timing of application.=20 Fast-acting, single-feed toxicants like red squill, sodium = fluoroacetate,=20 strychnine, and zinc phosphide have the potential for rapid knock-down = of the=20 pest population, although success often declines with repeated = applications=20 because animals that survive quickly learn not to eat the bait. The = naturally=20 cautious behavior of many rodents helps them to survive poisoning = campaigns. For=20 this reason, repeated applications of fast acting, single feed = rodenticide baits=20 often are futile. Pretreatment with non-toxic bait, or "prebaiting", is = often=20 used to help overcome this problem.

Alternating=20 toxicants and bait materials can also help forestall the development of = bait=20 shyness. The development of anticoagulant rodenticides during the late = 1940s was=20 a major advance in rodent control. At the concentrations used, first = generation=20 anticoagulant rodenticides, such as warfarin, pindone, fumarin, = coumafuryl,=20 diphacinone, and chlorophacinone, usually had to be consumed for several = days=20 for rats to receive a lethal dose. The delayed onset of sickness, = together with=20 the small amounts of the toxicant in baits effectively eliminated the = problem of=20 bait shyness. These low concentrations, coupled with their slow action = and the=20 availability of antidotes to reverse the anticoagulant effect, made = these=20 rodenticides very safe for human use. Second generation anticoagulant=20 rodenticides, such as brodifacoum, bromadiolone, difenacoum, and = difethialone,=20 were developed during the 1970s and are much more toxic, usually = requiring only=20 a single feeding by commensal rodents for ingestion of a lethal dose. = Genetic=20 resistance to anticoagulant rodenticides emerged as early as 1958 and = continues=20 to be a concern with second generation anticoagulants (Buckle et al. = 1994). The=20 increased toxicity and biological persistence of some second generation=20 anticoagulants has also raised regulatory concerns about environmental = and human=20 health effects, although these materials are also viewed as safe and are = commonly available for household rodent control by untrained people. = Stringent=20 regulation of rodenticide use in many countries, however, has increased = the=20 costs of developing new materials and restricted the kinds of problem = situations=20 where rodenticides may be used (Fagerstone et al. 1990); a number of the = older=20 materials are no longer marketed. Use of some rodenticides may be = allowed only=20 by trained specialists.

The = failure of=20 many rodenticide baiting programs results not from bait shyness or = resistance to=20 toxicants, but because of improper application of bait. Rodenticide = baiting=20 programs used by some Hawaiian macadamia growers were ineffective = because rats=20 spent most of their time in the orchard canopy and rarely consumed baits = that=20 were broadcast on the orchard floor (Tobin et al. 1997b). In = Philippine=20 coconut orchards, crown-baiting, as opposed to ground applications, = selectively=20 targeted the specific individual animals active in tree crowns that = caused=20 damage to developing coconuts (Fiedler et al. 1982). All available = rodenticides=20 are poisons that must be used with great caution. Package directions for = use and=20 pesticide labels must be carefully followed. When rodenticides are used = for=20 large-scale rodent control programs, local health authorities must be = notified=20 of the materials being used so that accidental poisoning cases can be = readily=20 diagnosed and treated.

5.5. = Biological=20 Control

Biological=20 control, or the introduction of predators, parasites, or disease = organisms to=20 control pests, is an ecologically and conceptually appealing approach to = reducing rodent pest populations. This tactic has been used successfully = in many=20 insect IPM programs to control insect crop pests. However, the = principles and=20 parameters relevant to insect IPM measures should not be applied = unquestioningly=20 to vertebrate pest problems (Marsh 1981). Introducing biological agents = to=20 control rodents is a promising area for research, but many challenges = remain to=20 find a candidate which is sufficiently pathogenic to achieve the desired = level=20 of control, has a high transmission rate, and is target specific = (Singleton and=20 Redhead 1990). We know of no examples of the successful introduction of=20 predators or diseases that have been effective in preventing damage by = rodents.=20 Often, such attempts have not only been ineffective, they have resulted = in=20 serious environmental problems.

The = role of=20 natural predators in controlling rodent pests is an interesting, but = frequently=20 misunderstood, concept that rarely is effective in reducing pest = populations to=20 tolerable levels (Howard 1967, Hygnstrom et al. 1994). Numerous studies = have=20 demonstrated the importance of rodents in the diet of selected predators = and=20 have encouraged the establishment of predator populations in crop areas = (Lenton=20 1980, Hall et al. 1981, Duckett 1982), but few have critically evaluated = the=20 utility of such predation for reducing pest populations or increasing = crop=20 yields. Fall (1977) observed that most predators in rice fields = patrolled dikes,=20 rather than entering wet paddies where rats were active. Or they = congregated=20 around fields after harvest when crop damage had already occurred and = rats had=20 no food or cover. Interest in fostering barn owl (Tyto alba) = populations=20 in oil palm plantations continues as a potential way to reduce = rodenticide use.=20 The introduction of barn owls to Hawaii for rodent control in the 1960s = was=20 ineffective.

Successful=20 introduction of exotic vertebrate predators into new areas for pest = control=20 purposes has never been demonstrated and, in some cases, has resulted in = unanticipated, calamitous ecological effects. During the late 1800s, the = small=20 Indian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) was introduced into both = the West=20 Indies and Hawaii to control rat populations in sugarcane fields. = Although this=20 predator survives in some areas on a diet composed mainly of rats = (Baldwin et=20 al.1952, Kami 1964), the introductions failed to achieve the desired = result of=20 reducing rat populations in sugarcane fields. In both the West Indies = and=20 Hawaii, mongooses have severely impacted ground-nesting bird species by = preying=20 on their eggs and young (Ebenhard 1988). In some areas in the Caribbean, = the=20 species has become a reservoir for rabies. Most studies that have = investigated=20 predator-prey relationships have concluded that predators exert a = controlling=20 influence on their prey only under rare circumstances, such as when prey = populations are already at low densities and alternative prey are = scarce. More=20 commonly, the presence of high rodent or other prey populations attracts = and=20 sustains predators which relocate when prey animals become more = difficult to=20 find and capture. Thus, except under rare conditions, predators do not = hunt=20 their prey to the low levels required for effective management of rodent = damage.=20

Where = rodent=20 populations present health hazards for humans or domestic animals, they = must be=20 maintained at very low levels to minimize exposure risks. In such = situations,=20 disease organisms or parasites may have difficulty sustaining infection = unless=20 an alternative host population exists (Davis et al. 1976). Davis and = Jensen=20 (1952) released Salmonella enteriditis into a population of = Norway rats=20 (Rattus norvegicus) and observed only very restricted spread of = the=20 infection and a likely development of resistance among the rodents. They = concluded that the introduced disease was not effective in lowering the = rat=20 population. In another study, Singleton et al. (1995) released the = nematode=20 parasite, (Capillaria hepatica), into wild populations of house = mice=20 (Mus musculus) and concluded that the parasite could not limit=20 low-density mouse populations. Many of the diseases and parasites to = which=20 rodents are susceptible are readily transmitted to humans and domestic = animals,=20 indicating the need for great caution in considering the use of such = approaches=20 for rodent control.

5.6. = Reproductive=20 Inhibition

Reproductive=20 inhibition, in theory, would seem to be a useful method of reducing = rodent=20 populations. The rapid reproductive potential of most rodent species = often=20 enables them to rapidly overcome other population reduction measures.=20 Reproductive inhibition is a non-lethal alternative that has the = potential to=20 provide long-lasting control. During the 1960s and 1970s, researchers = explored=20 the potential of various chemosterilants such as synthetic steroids, = estrogens,=20 and progestins as reproductive inhibitors (McIvor and Schmidt 1996). = More recent=20 research has focused on immunocontraception as a means of inducing=20 self-sterilization in pest populations (Miller et al. 1998). However, to = date=20 the only successful use of wildlife reproductive inhibitors has been in=20 laboratories, pens, and limited field situations, where animals are = either=20 captured, treated, and released, or are injected with darts at close = range=20 (obviously impractical for small, nocturnal mammals). The effective = control of=20 free-ranging wildlife populations would require oral delivery systems or = species-specific, infectious carriers that could deliver reproductive = inhibitors=20 to a sufficiently high proportion of animals to effect population = control. The=20 technologies for achieving such delivery systems are still being = researched. The=20 ultimate development of reproductive inhibitors for controlling = free-ranging=20 wildlife populations will require the resolution of many complex legal,=20 biological, economic, and ethical issues (Guynn 1997), and may be = practical only=20 for long-lived animals with lower reproductive capacities.

5.7.=20 Ultrasonics

Many = devices that=20 emit high-intensity ultrasound (sound frequencies greater than 20 kHz) = have been=20 marketed for rodent control, usually with a claim that the ultrasound is = aversive to rodents or somehow interferes with their communication. = However,=20 many studies that have evaluated ultrasound as a practical means of = rodent=20 control have concluded that ultrasound has only a partial or transitory = effect=20 (Shumake et al. 1982) or no effect at all on target species (Howard and = Marsh=20 1985, Lund 1988, Bomford and O'Brien 1990). Jackson (1990), citing work = by=20 McCartney and Jackson (1986, 1988), contended the use of ultrasonics may = be=20 appropriate in some IPM programs to displace rodents from sensitive = areas in=20 structures to locations where traps or bait stations can be used. He = cautioned=20 that users of this tool need to be conversant with the = technology.

5.8. = Bounties and=20 Insurance

Bounties, or=20 payments for carcasses or body parts of rodent pests, have frequently = been used=20 in many parts of the world in attempts to reduce rodent populations or = to induce=20 public participation in rodent control programs. Despite their = widespread use,=20 we know of no instances where bounties have succeeded in achieving the = desired=20 result, the reduction of pest populations to sufficiently low levels = necessary=20 for damage management purposes. Like wild predators, people often = participate in=20 bounty programs as long as animals are relatively easy to capture. = However, as=20 the pest population declines or as animals become more wary or difficult = to=20 capture, participation wanes. Because of rodents' high reproductive = capacity,=20 populations recover very quickly if conditions remain favorable. From an = economic standpoint, it is not in the interest of participants in bounty = programs to eliminate a source of income (the rodent population). = Commonly, in=20 areas where bounties are in effect, people are tempted to introduce = breeding=20 animals into the control area, to release mutilated animals, or to = submit=20 carcasses or body parts from other areas where animals are more easily=20 collected.

Residential or=20 business insurance policies sometimes cover property damage, fires, lost = shipments from contamination, or other losses attributed to rodents if=20 negligence is not involved. Insurance has not, however, been found to be = a=20 practical solution for dealing with crop losses caused by rodents, = because of=20 the statistical difficulties in relating damage that accumulates over = the crop=20 period to yield loss, because of the intermittent occurrence and=20 unpredictability of damage, and because of the high costs of = administering such=20 programs.

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Additional=20 Reading

Alderton, D.=20 1996. Rodents of the World. Blandford, London. 192 p.

Barnett, S.A.=20 1963. The Rat, a Study in Behaviour. Aldine Publ. Co., Chicago. 288 = p.

Buckle, A.P. and=20 R.H. Smith, eds. 1994. Rodent Pests and Their Control. CAB = International,=20 Wallingford, Oxon, UK. 405 p.

Cox, = G.W. 1999.=20 Alien Species in North America and Hawaii, Impacts on atural Ecosystems. = Island=20 Press, Washington, D. C. 387 p.

Meehan, A.P.=20 1984. Rats and Mice, Their Biology and Control. Rentokil, Ltd., East = Grinstead,=20 UK. 383 p.

Prakash, I, ed.=20 1988. Rodent Pest Management. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL USA. 480 p.

Ressig, W.H.,=20 E.A. Heinrichs, J.A. Litsinger, K.Moody, L. Fiedler, T.W. Mew, and A. = Barrion.=20 1986. Illustrated Guide to Integrated Pest Management in Rice in = Tropical Asia.=20 International Rice Research

Institute, Los=20 Banos, Philippines. 411 p.

Singleton, G.R.,=20 L.A. Hinds, H. Leirs, and Z. Zhang, eds. 1999. Ecologically-based = Management of=20 Rodent Pests. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, = Canberra. 494p.

Watts, C.H.S. and=20 H.J. Aslin. 1981. The Rodents of Australia. Angus & Robertson, = Sydney. 321=20 p.

To=20 cite this chapter

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= mso-style-update: auto; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; = mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-outline-level: 3; = mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-style-parent: Acknowledgements } DIV.Biography { FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 10pt; MARGIN: 14pt 1cm; FONT-FAMILY: = "Times New Roman"; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; mso-style-name: Biography; = mso-style-update: auto; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; = mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-outline-level: 3; = mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-style-parent: Acknowledgements } ------=_NextPart_000_000F_01C5F42C.D2777670 Content-Type: application/octet-stream Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/hitnav.js // // Hit navigation JavaScript for the dtSearch 6 ASP sample // // Copyright 2000 dtSearch Corp. // // This JavaScript is included in both retrieved documents and in // the search results list, to enable hit navigation using the // button bar in the sample search form. The button bar // uses JavaScript to call these functions in the search results frame // or in the retrieved document frame. // The first two variables in this file may need to be changed // if you modify dtsearch.asp to change the layout of search results. // // nFirstLink is the offset in search results of the first // link to a retrieved item. // nLinksPerItem is the number of links for each search results item. // nextDoc() and prevDoc() use these values to navigate = through the // list of links on a search results page. // nFirstLink =3D 1; nLinksPerItem =3D 1; nDoc =3D -1; nHit =3D 0; fAutoNextDoc =3D 0; var simpleNav =3D 1; var browser =3D navigator.appName; var version =3D parseInt(navigator.appVersion); if ((browser.indexOf("Microsoft") !=3D -1) && (version >=3D 4)) simpleNav =3D 0; function setCurrentDoc(n) { nDoc =3D n; } function gotoDoc(n) { nLink =3D nFirstLink + (n * nLinksPerItem); if (n < 0) return; if (nLink >=3D document.links.length) return; setCurrentDoc(n); link =3D document.links[nLink]; // Can also set parent.doc.window.location.href but that sometimes = crashes IE parent.window.open(link.href, "doc"); if (link.y) // Netscape window.scrollTo(0, link.y); else // IE window.scrollTo(0, link.offsetTop + link.offsetHeight + = link.offsetParent.offsetTop); if (!simpleNav) { var s =3D document.body.createTextRange(); if (s =3D=3D null) return; s.moveToElementText(link); s.moveEnd("word"); s.scrollIntoView(1); s.select(); } } function nextDoc() { gotoDoc(nDoc+1); } function prevDoc() { gotoDoc(nDoc-1); } function old_gotoHit(where) { window.location.hash =3D where; } function findLink(links, name) { if (links.namedItem) return links.namedItem(name); for (i =3D 0; i < links.length; ++i) { if (links[i]) { if (links[i].name =3D=3D name) return links[i]; } } } function gotoHit(where) { if (simpleNav) { old_gotoHit(where); return; } var a =3D findLink(document.anchors, where); if (a =3D=3D null) return; if (a.length > 1) return; if (a.y) { // Netscape window.scrollTo(0, a.y); } else { // IE window.scrollTo(0, a.offsetTop - a.offsetHeight + = a.offsetParent.offsetTop); } var s =3D document.body.createTextRange(); if (s !=3D null) { s.moveToElementText(a); s.moveEnd("word"); s.select(); s.scrollIntoView(); } } function gotoNthHit(n) { nHit =3D n; if ((n > 1) && (n =3D=3D maxHits)) gotoHit('hit_last'); else if (n =3D=3D 0) old_gotoHit('hit0'); else gotoHit('hit' + n); } function nextHit() { if (nHit < maxHits) { gotoNthHit(nHit+1); } else if (fAutoNextDoc && parent && parent.res) parent.res.nextDoc(); } function prevHit() { if (nHit > 0) { gotoNthHit(nHit-1); } } ------=_NextPart_000_000F_01C5F42C.D2777670--